One of the challenges faced
by students that are involved in the acquisition of an academic degree, as
Higher Education or a PhD., are related to the difficulties of development of a
Academic Research Project. Such challenges are surrounded by incorrect
determination of the research scope and complexity, the erroneous estimative
for the research conclusion (or even the time demand due to problems occurring
during the research development) or even finishing with poor quality as
something that was not expected by the advisor and other evaluators.
These elements culminates in
the application of Project Management Theory that is being studied by
institutions such as the Project Management Institute - PMI (PMSURVEY.ORG,
2010) over the years and which aims to improve the process of project
development in general, including academic projects aimed at scientific
research in the university accordingly to MUSTARO & ROSSI, 2013. PMI is responsible
for developing guide lines for project management as defined on the Project
Management Body of Knowledge – PMBOK (PMI, 2008). From the presented scenario,
the general objective of this paper is to establish Project Management
Principles 326 link between academic research projects with the Project
Management Theory.
As specific objectives, this
paper considers: 1) present the types of academic research projects that can be
treated according to the precepts of the project, 2) provide project management
theoretical foundations, and 3) present part of the process groups of PMBOK
(Project Management Body of Knowledge), a framework widely used in over a
hundred countries, linking these process groups to the academic research
projects.
To develop the proposed
objectives and present the research results this paper is organized as follows:
Initially is described the Project
Management Principles, then the processes involved in Initiating and Planning
Process Groups are detailed based on PMBOK as well their relation with Academic
Research Project. For each process group, their relation with the Knowledge
Areas from PMBOK is detailed, and specific templates, as an Academic Research
Project Plan Template, are presented. Finally, the conclusions are related and
future works are suggested.
Project Management Principle
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Each of
these approaches has its own way of looking at projects on its own terminology
for the document and process that make up project management. There has been
some rationalization in recent years but there are still a dozen widely used
methods .The ones you are most likely to encounter are PMBOK, PRINCE2, Critical
Chain, and Agile.
PMBOK
is short for Project Management Body of Knowledge, which describes project
management practices that are common to ‘most of the time.’ The PMBOK is
published by the Project Management Institute (PMI), which was formed in the
USA in 1969.The PMI also offers various levels of certification and the PMBOK
is widely used and respected.
PRINCE2
is a process-based approach for project management, providing an easily
tailored and scalable methodology for the management of all types of projects.
The method is the standard for public sector projects in the UK and is
practiced worldwide. The acronym stands for Projects in a Controlled
Environment and this is a project management program that shares more of the
functional an financial authority with senior management, not just the project
manager.
The
critical Chain methods is not fundamentally different from the current
mainstream approaches but it differs in the way that it handles risk an
contingency, Developed in 1997 it is a method of planning and managing projects
execution designed to deal with uncertainties inherent in managing projects,
while taking into consideration the limited availability of resources.
The
Agile approach uses an iterative method of determining requirement for
engineering and software development projects in a highly flexible and
interactive manner. It is most often used in small-scale projects or in cases
where the final deliverables are too complex for the customers to understand
and specify before testing prototypes.
In
summary, organizations are increasingly using project management techniques
within their operations and the specialist languages of project management has
become more and more commonplace in managerial and executive meetings. This
trend is here to stay and it means that managers need to be familiar with the
project management role, terms and processes.
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ü Managers now find that they are
frequently involved in projects that are being managed using a formalized
project management methodology.
ü Each of these approaches has its own
way of looking at projects and its own terminology for the documents and
processes that make up project management.
·
The purpose of the seminar (is to provide a clear and consistent definition of
the project’s vision/mission, scope and objectives. The project charter is
developed early in the project management life cycle. It
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Budget
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Schedule Items
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Performance
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Development
Technology
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User Attributes
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Business Change
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Cost or Financial
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Vendor or Contractor
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Human Resources
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Politics
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Acts of God
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Requirements
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Function Areas Of Project Management
1.
Managing the project team: this include all of the processes to put together
develop, and Identifying what information need to be communicated and to whom,
in order to ensure that the right people get the right information at the right
time.
2.
Managing the project schedule: this involves making sure that things happen on time
and keeping the project on schedule, it include techniques to estimate how long
things will take, to plan accordingly and then to keep everything on track.
3.
Managing the project scope: this is a process by which the project manager
defines the boundaries of the project and ensure that any change to the
original scope and carefully managed, it defines exactly what is included in
the project and what is excluded.
4.
Managing the project budget: this involve keeping the project on budget and
include technique for estimating cost planning and budgeting as well as
monitoring and controlling the cost. Some of this materials and service
required to complete the project may need to be obtain from outside suppliers.
If this is the case then the project manager will also need an understanding of
contract and suppliers management.
5.
Managing project quality: this is to ensure that the project meets it
requirement and that the deliverables do what is expected of them.
The Five
Principles of Successful Project Management
Early
in my genesis to becoming a project manager, I was exposed to event planning
and noticed the distinct similarities and differences between the two. With
project management, the process is well defined and flows from one step to the
next in an ordered manner. Event management on the other hand is a whirlwind of
ever-evolving planning and execution.
While
at a previous company, I was beginning to learn the project management ropes
when I volunteered as part of a group to plan our department’s quarterly team
meeting, all the while identifying, prioritizing and addressing causes of the
department’s poor morale.
Since
the group had no event planners but multiple project management professionals,
we undertook the task with the tools and techniques our training and experience
offered and implemented the classic project management processes: initiating,
planning, executing, monitoring/controlling and closing.
1. "The Initiating Process
Group consists of those processes performed to define a new project or a phase
of an existing project by obtaining authorization to start Initiation usually involves defining
a project and gaining approval to begin working; in our case some of this had
already occurred. We approached the issue carefully and had already determined
it was best to hold our meeting in a central location with easy access.
The
site had to seat our entire group, and we wanted a format that would keep the
meeting fun while keeping the task of communicating business information to the
team paramount. So, the group researched available, suitable venues and elements
to improve the meetings.
2. "The
Planning Process Group consists of those processes required to establish the
scope of the project, refine the objectives and define the course of action
required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken to achieve.
Planning
an event is a series of seemingly never-ending tasks that most people never
think about.
Our
team met, reviewed the parameters and began brainstorming venue options while
qualifying them against our list of requirements. We detailed the reasons to
meet—team building, unity of message and gains in efficiency—and made
recommendations that we meet off site as an entire team where everyone could
hear all the questions and the responses. After some research we decided that a
local movie house fit the bill—it served food and had comfortable rolling
chairs. This was the type of environment that would help people relax, talk to
their peers and make some new friends.
We
learned from the group studying meeting effectiveness to make the meeting fun to
keep people attentive and engaged. We offered raffle prizes and broke up the
presentations with company trivia. At the same time, we endeavored to come up
with a theme for the meeting and worked with the video production team to
develop a short video to open the meeting.
As
we developed the schedule of events, we quickly learned that this would mean
more than just telling everyone to show up at a particular time. This was going
to require significant coordination. Our CIO had a tight schedule and needed to
know exactly when he was to speak so he could maintain his schedule. The venue
wanted to know how long we’d require the space. Every piece had to be
coordinated down to the minute, which meant viewing the speaker scripts and
presentations to suitably time them.
We
didn’t have the money to provide meals for the staff, but we knew food would
enhance participants’ experiences. We scheduled the meeting around lunchtime,
since with the venue and nearby eateries everyone could easily find
Something
they liked. Instead of lunch during the meeting we established a candy station
to match the theater setting.
One
thing was critical to our success: We had to develop our communications plan to
share progress with key stakeholders and meeting details with the attendees. I
was not entirely sure the leadership team trusted us to do the job well, so
keeping them informed regularly helped grow their trust in us—we were on pace
to deliver the meeting on time and on budget. Communicating the meeting details
to the staff helped build the excitement that this event would be not just
another boring meeting.
Next,
we verified that our tech needs would be met, arranged for microphones and made
sure our PowerPoint presentations could be played on the big screen.
3. "The Executing Process
Group consists of those processes performed to complete the work defined in the
project management plan to satisfy the project specifications.
The
big day arrived and most of us showed up early at the office to go over our
checklists one more time. We were eager, wondering if our vision for improving
morale through improved communications would pay off. We had assignments and
all the props necessary to pull off the event as planned, so we headed to the
site to get ready.
This
is where project management really diverges from event planning. The execution
process in most projects is a series of predictable steps that you move through
until you complete each deliverable. With event planning, the execution phase
is your event, you are live and there is no time for standard project
methodologies.
4. "The monitoring and
controlling process group. Those processes required to track, review and
regulate the progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in
which changes to the plan are required; and initiate the corresponding changes.
In
project management, as we work through the execution process we are constantly
monitoring and controlling processes to ensure results match stakeholders’
expectations. This allows a project manager to really impact the results and
achieve success. Event planners don’t have this same luxury—when it’s time to
execute, your event is in full swing and you better be prepared, because all
you have time for is handling new and/or unexpected issues that arise. However,
you can take the opportunity to learn from each event and make the next one
better. We used a survey tool to assess our effectiveness and examined what
worked and what didn’t.
5.
"The Closing Process Group consists of those processes performed to
finalize all activities across all the Process Groups to formally close the
project or phase.
Lastly, we took all our preparatory notes, status reports, schedules of events, video and especially our post-event lessons learned and closed out the project. We met with the leadership team to make sure our delivery met their expectations; we discussed the value to the organization that this meeting provided and compared it to what was spent to make sure that the value exceeded the expense.
PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE
The way in which organization is structured
is largely a result of whether its day to day work is process driven or project
driven
Project focused
This organization
day-to-day work involves delivering unique project for external customers for a
set time period. Their management structure is designed to support project and
everyone working in the organization is assigned to every or more projects. Examples
include: contraction companies, consulting organization, software developers
and advertising agencies.
Process focused
The day-to-day work of
these organizations predominantly involves continually delivering product or
service for external customers. Their management structure is designed to
support the process required to deliver the product to the end customer.
Examples include: Utility companies, Manufacturing companies, government
department charities, and NGO’s.
Project Stakeholder Definition
Irrespective of hoe the organization
is structured there are certain roles and responsibilities that are required in
all project. Different organizations may use different names for these roles
but the responsibilities of each one will be the same.
Processes involve in project stakeholder
Identify
the project stakeholder: this involves identifying the people, group, or
organizations that could impact or be impacted by a decision activity, or
outcome of the project. It analyzes and documents their interests in and
influences on the project. A stake holder is defined as anyone with an interest
in the project, irrespective of whether that interest is positive or negative.
The
may be individuals or organizations that are actively involved in the project,
or whose interest may be affected by the execution or completion of the
project.
Project Management Perspectives
Project
management is the discipline of planning, organization, motivating and
controlling resources to achieve specific goals. A project is a temporary
endeavor designed to produce a unique product, services or result with a
defined beginning and end (usually time constrained, and often constrained by
funding or deliverables), undertaken meet unique goals and objectives,
typically to bring about beneficial change or added value.
The
primary challenges of project management are to achieve all of the project
goals and objective while honoring the constraints on scope, time, quality and
cost. Projects need to be managed to
meet
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their
objectives, which are defined in terms of expectations of time, cost, and
quantity.
The
scope of the project is defined as, the totality of the output, outcome, and
benefits and the work required to produce item
Ways to look at project management perspective
are:
i.
How
the project fits into the organization – this refers to both the project and
the individuals who will be involve in it, including how they interact with
each other.
ii.
What
skills are required to successfully manage the project: These are usually
referred to as “project functional areas” because there are discrete areas
within project management that can be considered in isolation even though they
are interdependent.
iii.
How
the project will evolve over time; this is the project life cycle and is the
chronological sequence of activities that need to happen in order to deliver
the project.
Project Management Definition
Before
concerning ourselves with the details of project managements documents and
processes, it is a good idea to take a step back and think about what makes
something a project and why its need to be managed differently from the
day-to-day works of the organization. In
other words,
Many organizations also have their own definition of what
constitutes a project. Whichever definition you prefer does not really matter;
the important thing is to be able to identify work that constitutes a project
so that it can be properly managed.
They have some or all of the
following characteristics:
·
They
have definite start and endpoint
·
Once
the endpoint is reached the project is over
·
They
are attempting to achieve something new
Projects can vary in size and small project can be planned
and managed by the same person whereas larger project may employ thousands of
people working on sites and require z dedicated group in other to manager and
coordinate the activities.
Project Life Cycle Definition
There
is very little agreement about the life cycle phases of a project and many
organizations have their own internal definition and template. This can vary
enormously in size and complexity.
Despite this, all project can mapped
to following samples life cycle structure:
·
Starting
the project
·
Organizing
preparing
·
Carrying
out the work
·
Closing
the project
This is known as a four-phase life
cycle and are usually referred to as
1.
Project
initiation
2.
Project
planning
3.
Project
execution
4.
Project
closure
Each of these phases is made up of
discrete activities, each of which has an associated definition and guidelines.
The number of activities depends on the scope of the project.
A simple project will involve only a
few activities while a more complex project may involve hundred or thousand of
individual activities. This model can be applied to a variety of project
scenarios although the cost and duration of each face will vary according to
the particular project. Projects are temporary structure set up with the
specific aim of delivering an identifiable end-product. All projects will
therefore have an identifiable life cycle, the characteristics of which will
vary according to the size and complexity of the project.
For example, in case of project
whose aim is to evaluate, recommend and implement a computerized account
system. The costs of the project are restricted to the selection of the most
suitable system available and the training and implementation necessary for it
introduction. The actual purchase of the system is not within the term of
reference of the project, as this capital cost will be taken from a separate
budget.
A typical life will run from the
formal initiation of a project through to a post implementation review (PIR) of
the delivered end-point. This post implementation review is not shown as its
usually held some months after the project has been formally closed. There is
often little agreement between industries, or even between organizations within
the same industry, about the life cycle phases of a project. This is
understandable because of the complicated nature and diversity of projects.
A five-phase project life cycle
model can be applied to a variety of project scenarios although the cost and
duration of each phase will vary according to the particular project. The
conceptual phase includes the preliminary evaluation of an idea. It is common
for this phase to include a first cut feasibility study for the proposed
project. This analysis should also include a preliminary risk assessment.
The definition phase is primarily a
refinement of those areas considered in the conceptual phase. The resources
required by the project should be defined along with time, cost and performance
estimates. Project estimation is a difficult task-especially in this early
phase. However it is essential that costs are quantified, as this information
is needed to establish whether or not the project should proceed.
Once a project has received the
funding and backing of senior management it can proceed to the production
phase. This incorporates the production, or acquisition, of the end-product
specified. This begins with the updating of detailed plans, started in the
preceding phases and encompasses the identification and identification and
management of the resources required. This phase also includes the development
of manuals, plans and other documentation that will support the end product in
its live environment.
The operation phase involves the
integration of the end-product or services into the organizational environment.
If the end-product was a marketable product then this phase would typically
include the product life cycle phases of marketing and refinement.
The divestment phase involves the
reallocation of resources that are no longer required by the current project.
The end-product of any project will have a finite lifespan and therefore its
ability to generate revenue will be limited. The organization will usually need
to run future projects to guarantee its revenue stream.
It is therefore important to retain
the services of staff and other resources that can be used in forthcoming
projects. This phase also incorporates the post of implementation evaluation of
the delivered end-product, and this should serve as input to the conceptual
phase of future projects.
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ü All projects can be mapped to the
following simple life cycle structure: starting the project, organizing and
preparing, carrying out the work, and closing the project.
ü This is known as a four-phase life
cycle and the phases are usually referred to as: initiation, planning,
execution, and closure.
ü Projects can also be thought as
having a five phase life-cycle consisting of conceptual, definition,
production, operation and divestment phases.
Functional
Areas of Project Management
So far in this eBook, we have dealt
with the organizational aspects of the project and the project and the project
life cycle, both of these ways of looking at project management from the
perspective of the individual processes involved.
These processes can be organized into functional areas, for
example:
·
Managing
the scope,
·
Managing
the cost,
·
Managing
the schedule,
·
Managing
Risk, etc.
The reason for doing this is that it
allows complex high-level tasks to be broken down into smaller tasks, a common
practice when learning something new. For example, when learning to drive you
concentrate on a specific task, such as gear changing, hill starts etc, before
you drive on an interstate road or motorway.
Extending this approach to project
management makes tasks easier to manage, resource, and control. Thinking about
project management activities like scoping, scheduling, quality, and risk in
isolation before trying to integrate them into a real project minimizes the
potential for misinterpretation, and makes each area easier to understand.
However, whilst these functional areas can be presented as being more or less
self-contained, in practice they overlap and interact in a unique fashion that
reflects the nature of a project.
Consequently, the functional areas
are not meant to be prescriptive activities that are executed one after the
other. You need to be continually reviewing each area as the project progresses
and new information becomes available.
For example, looking at the scope
management activity as something discrete makes sense because even if it’s
being done at the same time as one or more of the other processes it is always
done in the same way. There is no need to do different types of scope
management at different stages of the project because scope management is scope
management no matter how when you do it and no matter what else is happening at
the same time.
Project
Estimation & Planning
The
steps in project estimation and planning are:
Define
project requirements:
Define
the project goals/priorities and requirements
Define
the communication, training, and change management requirements
Decompose
the above requirements into a work-breakdown structure (WBS), that defines each
activity required to complete the project
Schedule
the activities in the WBS into a time-related plan
Estimate
the time, cost and resources required for the plan
Step-By-Step Process
Interview Customer
·
Conduct interviews with the
customer. Understand the customer’s strategic vision for the company and the
customer’s objectives for achieving the vision. Determine the basic problem or
need by asking open-ended (not yes or no questions) that probe to get beyond
the symptoms to the real problem or need. Review the proposed solution and
determine what other solutions that should be considered. Review the process
the customer used to evaluate the problem and identify possible solutions and
the reason the customer selected the requested solution. Ask “why” often. Ask
questions to verify the basic scope of what the customer is asking for. Obtain
from the customer any documentation and company literature that might be
pertinent to the request.
Conduct Internal Research
·
Interview other personnel from
your group and the customers group. Review documentation. Develop processes
charts to study the “current state” of the organization, function or process.
Obtain organization charts.
Develop Solution and Requirements
·
Assist in developing a
solution, consulting with subject matter and technical experts as needed.
During this phase, the project manager should primarily focus on understanding
what the project sponsor is
Trying to achieve. If
the project is highly technical, the use of subject matter experts is
recommended.
Review
Lessons Learned
·
A project repository of lessons learned
for use by project managers is created as a reference for present and future
projects. The project repository is a central database or file, which contains
pertinent project information. This includes the project notebook as well as
additional information regarding the project successes and pitfalls. The
project manager should review the lessons learned from previous projects to
assist in assessing project risks, maintaining project schedules, and
understanding potential areas of concern experienced previously on other
projects. Review the issues logs from previous projects to identify potential
risks (all issues were once risks).
Review
Customer Requirements
·
The project manager is responsible for
identifying and understanding the customer requirements of the project. By
reviewing any existing requirements, business case or proposal documents, the
project manager should be able to determine the purpose of the project and the
expectations. The project manager must identify all requirements that are
unclear, incomplete, unfeasible, contradictory, or that in some way may prevent
the successful completion of the project. Meeting with the project owner to
discuss the requirements and any vague items is required. The project manager
must schedule a time with the project owner as soon as the project manager is
assigned to review the project and understand the expectations. A copy of the
Project Sponsor Assessment Checklist should be used as a starting point and all
project deliverables should be communicated, agreed upon, and documented. The
project manager will provide a copy of the meeting minutes documenting the
agreed upon deliverables. The meeting minutes should be distributed to the
project owner within 24 hours of the meeting. This allows both parties to see
the results of the meeting and address any disagreements immediately.
Define
Project Roles
·
The question of what level of authority
the project manager should possess is natural when consideration is given to
the large number of people that must be depended upon for results, but are not
under the project manager’s direct control. The question becomes even more
relevant considering the differences in responsibilities of the project manager
and the functional managers. The project manager is ultimately responsible for
developing a cohesive project team motivated toward success making the project
managers leadership qualities, interpersonal skills, and credibility are far
more important than formal authority. A project manager possessing these
attributes can usually find a way to “make it happen” with or without formal
authority, but the project owner should give the project manager the level of
authority that enables the project manager to successfully accomplish the assigned
responsibilities. The project owner should provide the project manager with a
formal statement or contract detailing the scope of authority being granted.
The level of authority should be directly
Proportional to the expectations
and responsibilities. When the project manager is unable to resolve issues or
negotiate solutions at the lower levels of the organization, the project owner
is responsible for escalating those issues to higher levels.
In order to have a successful
project, all project stakeholders must know and understand their role in the
project. It is the project manager’s responsibility to communicate these roles
to the project stakeholders.
Project Manager: The project manager is
responsible for managing the project’s scope, schedule, and cost to support the
owner’s expectations for the successful completion of the project. Typical
duties include:
·
Managing the development of the scope
definition and project plans.
·
Providing team leadership for problem
resolution by working with the lowest organizational levels possible and
escalating, as necessary.
·
Monitoring schedule and costs versus
project progress to identify problems that could potentially extend the
schedule or overrun costs.
·
Taking, directing, or recommending
corrective action when scope, schedule, or cost variances threaten the project.
·
Serving as the central point of contact
for the project and communicating project status to the project owner and other
stakeholders.
·
Providing input to the performance
reviews of the project team members.
·
Negotiating a resolution to team member
resource conflicts with their functional managers.
Project
Owner/Sponsor: The project owner or sponsor should be a
director or higher-level member of the department who is the largest
stakeholder in the project or who will receive the greatest benefit by the
project’s successful completion. The owner assumes the overall responsibility
for the entire project. The project owner will appoint a project manager to
manage and control the project. The project owner may provide the project
manager the expectations of the end product or results, the minimum success
criteria, and the level of interface expected during the project life cycle. The
project owner is responsible for the following:
·
Champion the project
·
Maintaining enough involvement with the
project to ensure that the desired outcome is attained.
·
Granting a sufficient level of authority
to the project manager required for the project’s success.
·
Providing or negotiating support when
the project manager is unable to resolve problems at a lower level.
·
Providing ongoing performance feedback
to the project manager as well as providing input to the project manager’s
performance review.
Project Team Members: The
project team members are responsible for ensuring that their group’s
responsibilities are identified and accurately planned, resources are available
to support the budget and schedule, accurate information is provided for project
status, and the project manager is assisted in problem resolution.
Assemble
Core Project Team
·
The project manager must determine what
skills are needed to successfully complete the project. Information gathered
from reviewing the business case, reviewing the lessons learned from previous
projects, and identifying the requirements are used to determine what the
project team composite should be. Once the needed skill sets for the project
have been identified, the staffing requirements must be acquired. Unfortunately
the most knowledgeable people may not be available for the project due to
higher priority projects, so the project manager must ensure the resources
assigned are capable of successfully meeting the project requirements. This
requires gaining approval from functional managers for employing their
personnel on the project team and obtaining the training necessary for project
success. When building the project teams consider the following:
·
Does the individual have the necessary
skills or is additional training needed?
·
Does the individual or group have
previous relevant experience and, if so, did they do well?
·
Is the individual or group interested in
working on the project?
·
Will the project team members work well
together?
·
Will the individual or group be
available when needed?
·
Develop High-Level Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS)
·
A high-level WBS should be developed by
the project manager to begin defining the scope of the project. The project
manager should develop a high-level WBS from the information gathered from the
project sponsor. The WBS is a product oriented hierarchical division of project
elements that organizes, defines, and establishes the total scope of the
project. This WBS will identify all of the major deliverables that make up the
total solution. During the detailed planning meeting and work session to be
held during the Planning Phase, the project manager will review the high-level
WBS with the project team and further decompose the deliverables into
manageable work packages prior to developing tasks and building a schedule.
·
From previous projects, obtain a WBS
that closely models the project being developed. Use only the top two or three
layers of deliverables to develop a high-level WBS. This step will result in a
high-level WBS that identifies major divisions of the project as they relate to
the overall objectives and will be attached to the Project Charter.
High-Level
Risk Assessment
·
During this phase, the project manager
should begin to identify major risks to the project. It is not important to
have detailed plans at this time, but it is important to begin to identify what
could potentially impact the success of this project. Once identified, they
should be included in the high-level Project Charter completed during this
phase.
·
The project manager, along with the
project team, will identify major project risks and develop risk management
plans during the Planning Phase. In identifying the major project risks, the
sources of potential risk must be determined. The project manager will begin
with the work breakdown structure (WBS) to determine potential risks associated
with the project. Some of the more common risks include:
·
Changes in project requirements and/or
scope
·
Unrealistic schedules and/or budgets
·
Misinterpretations or misunderstandings
·
Unclear roles and responsibilities
·
Unskilled staff
·
Availability of staff
·
Undefined success criteria
Managing risk
falls into one of the four following categories:
·
Avoidance involves
changing the project plan to eliminate the risk or condition or to protect the
project objectives from its impact.
·
Transfer is
seeking to shift the consequence of the risk to someone else. This does not
eliminate the risk.
·
Acceptance understands
the risk and accepting the consequences should the risk occur. An example would
be accepting extended project duration due to resource availability.
·
Mitigation involves
preparing a plan that describes the actions to be taken before a risk occurs to
minimize any potential impact.
A contingency plan
for a risk event is the identification of steps which will be
accomplished if the risk strategy is implemented. The steps will be included in
the project’s schedule and cost baselines.
The decision to prepare a risk
avoidance and risk contingency plans depends on the circumstances associated
with each project. In most cases these plans should be prepared for a specific
area of risk if:
·
The risk is moderate or high,
·
The probability of occurring is moderate
or high, and
The impact is significant. If any
one of these factors is not present for an area of risk, it may not be
necessary to prepare risk avoidance measures or a risk contingency plan. Most
of the risk areas center on the following:
·
Resources (e.g., personal, facilities,
hardware, etc.),
·
Requirements definition & scope,
·
Technology, and
·
External dependencies.
When identifying
high-level risks, be sure to consider the following risk attributes:
During the Initiation Phase the
project manager should assess probable risks to the project and include them in
the Project Charter. A detailed analysis is not needed at this time since the
risk will further analyzed during the project team Risk Management meeting.
Develop
Cost Estimates
·
A large number of projects fail because
initial cost estimates are simply too low. It is important that project
managers and account managers accurately state the estimated costs. Depending
on the size of the project, costs will be tracked in different ways. Be sure to
document your costs in a spreadsheet, which will later be validated when the
final project plan is approved and baseline. These initial estimates will help
prevent cost issues from arising once the total project cost are determined and
agreed to. Be sure to include significant equipment, human resource, contract,
and supply costs.
·
The project team should use a typical or
similar completed project, if available, plus lessons learned, to estimate time
and cost at the lowest level of the high-level WBS. The costs will “roll-up” to
the higher-level tasks to form the overall project cost. Be sure to consult
with people who have experience in completing the described tasks. All
organizations have some type of subject matter expert that could help validate
a cost estimate.
·
Develop High-Level Project Charter
Principles of Project Management
Success
Project management knowledge, tools and processes
are not enough to make your project succeed. You need to get away from your
desk and get your hands dirty. Liaise with the team, users and stakeholders and
actively focus them on the objectives and outcomes of the project. Work to
remove blockages and build effective personal relationships.
One of the worst things you can do is to assume that
everything is ok; that product quality will come automatically and that your
team is happily motivated. Instead you need to be positively skeptical and constantly ask if you have proof that something is working well.
Be proactive and investigate the true state of your project. Ask yourself the following
questions.
1. Begin with the end in mind.
To be able to successfully deliver a project
you must know what the project’s end game is. Check that the project has a
valid and sound business case, define scope and really feel the end product and
its purpose. Identify the main stakeholders and uncover how the benefits will
impact each of them. Investigate if any of the existing business processes need
to change as result of your project and clarify what needs to happen in order
for the end product to be successfully transitioned into the client’s business.
In many instances the business case will have been written by a senior
executive before you get involved in the project. But although you may not be
the owner of it, it is your obligation to make sure that it exists and that it
is fit for purpose. Ask to see it and query it if you feel it is too weak.
Never lose sight of the end goal. Get agreement from the stakeholders as to how
you define and measure it and check back that the products you plan to deliver
at each stage of the project will actually fulfill the business needs and
provide the expected benefits.
2. Win the support of your stakeholders.
To deliver a project effectively and
successfully, the project sponsor and steering committee must have the
authority to determine the project’s direction and to approve project
deliverables, spend and resources. They must live up to this responsibility by
being active participants who provide support and guidance when needed. Build
strong relationships with your stakeholders and win their support by spending
time with each person individually, understanding their concerns and viewpoints.
Provide them with the information they need and in a format they want. “Provide
your stakeholders with regular project updates and never be afraid to disclose
risks or issues, or ask for help. The true test of a confident project manager
is someone who has the courage to be open and ask for help.” Involve your
stakeholders as much as you can and hold them accountable for actions they take
on. Ask them to help define and sign off key deliverables and to make decisions
and resolve urgent issues that you cannot handle on your own. When you involve
your stakeholders and make them take ownership they become part of the
solution. They will feel responsible and do everything they can to make the
project succeed.
3. Understand and focus on
project success criteria.
Project success often means that products must
be delivered on time, within budget
and to a level of quality that is acceptable to the client. It is essential for
you to establish what the project’s success criteria are and keep the team’s
attention focused on achieving them. You must understand which parameters and
constraints apply to the project and how they break down to each stage of the
project and for go live. Put yourself in the shoes of each stakeholder and
investigate what it would take for each of them to say that the project was a
success at each major stage. Check back to see that there is congruence between
what each stakeholder says and what your measurable objectives are. Not all
success criteria can be top priority so ask the project sponsor to set clear
priorities.
4.
Focus on product quality.
The key to successful delivery and quality
management is to carefully define scope, detailed requirements and acceptance
criteria by liaising closely with the end users and to continually check that
the products you are developing match these criteria. Establish a close working
relationship with the client and users and keep them involved throughout the
project. Create a comprehensive picture of the finished deliverables which
everyone agrees to so that all efforts are focused in the same direction. Avoid
vague descriptions at all costs; clarify using requirements documents and
picture it using models and storyboards. Prototype, demonstrate and make sure
everyone agrees with what you have defined. When everyone knows what the
finished deliverables look like, plan to carry out comprehensive tests
involving independent testers, if possible, as well as end users. Test and
verify functionality continuously throughout the project and make sure you have
time set aside in your schedule for rework after each test activity.
5.
Get the best people involved and nurture
your team.
Delivering a successful project is heavily
dependent on having a successful team. Acquire the most driven, experienced and
best qualified people and focus on making them thrive. Value them, protect them
from internal politics and give them the training, tools and working conditions
they need to apply their talents. Find out what motivates each individual and
find a way to tap into their hidden potential. Cross train staff, facilitate
knowledge sharing and have succession planning in place. Ring fence resources
where possible so that you do not have to share them with other projects. If
your team members are working on several projects, fight for their time and get
senior managers to actively set project priorities to avoid conflict.
Nurture the team and make sure that
working on the project is a worthwhile experience.
6.
Be proactive in the identification and
resolution of risks and issues.
In order to deliver your project as
effectively as possible, you need to stay on top of risks and issues so that
they do not get out of hand and inadvertently affect quality, time and cost.
The importance of this part of your job cannot be overemphasized. Be proactive
and determined to continuously identify and mitigate risks by spending time
with each team member and stakeholder. Ask them what is worrying them and play
out different scenarios and brainstorm things that could jeopardize the success
of the project. Carry out root cause and impact analysis and brainstorm options
for how you can best move forward. Secure the buy in and support from your
stakeholders and ask for guidance and direction when you need it. Some problems
can only be resolved at a steering committee level, so do not hesitate to provide
visibility to executives. Always encourage open and honest communications
without assigning blame for issues that arise.
7. Deliver tangible benefits
gradually.
On many projects, your chances of success will
be greater the earlier you start to deliver real benefits to the sponsor and
end users. The traditional way of delivering a project can be risky as products
are only tested and delivered towards the end of the project. If applicable,
use an iterative approach which somewhat reverses this pattern and enables you
to build, test and deliver functionality gradually. Break up a large project
into smaller projects or phases with clear milestones and deliverables. Focus
on the highest value and highest risk items first. Plan for early successes and
track your milestones frequently. You want to have fast moving deliverables and
experiencing the reward of hitting smaller milestones. Also bear in mind that
delivering good news about project progress is something which should be
delivered gradually. Instead of having a lot of positive reports one month and
nothing the next, consider managing the flow of positive information so that
there is always a little piece of good news to report on.
8. Provide good estimates
and build sufficient contingency into the schedule.
As we have touched upon previously it is
essential to project success that your project starts off on the right foot and
that you have a good understanding of how much it is likely to cost and how
long it is likely to take to complete. Use a variety of estimation techniques
and tools and involve team members and senior managers in the estimation
process. Break items into as much detail as possible as this will make it
easier for you to provide accurate estimates. Make sure you factor in all phases,
roles and activities and build in sufficient contingency. When you convert your
estimates of effort into actual man hours of duration make sure you account for
the fact that no team is ever 100% effective. Push back on sponsors and
managers who want you to commit to a delivery date which is not feasible.
Instead, provide best case and worst case costs and dates as opposed to just
one figure. This will give you more leeway and increase your chances of
delivering within the agreed parameters.
9. Have realistic,
transparent and up-to-date plans.
Regardless of whether you use a traditional or
more iterative project methodology, realistic and up to date project planning
is a must if you want to succeed. An effective project plan must be based on
clear requirements and sound estimates. It should explain, in plain English,
what is to be accomplished and delivered, which methods and resources will be
used, how quality will be measured and when the products will be delivered. The
plan should contain frequent milestones which are being tracked and reported on
and allow for gradual delivery of benefits to the users. The planning process
must be continuous throughout the project and adjusted to account for progress
and approved changes to scope. If applicable, keep a detailed plan of work for
the near future and an outlined plan for the far future. There may be little
point planning in detail for what will happen in three months time as things
will change. Use a broad brush to plan ahead and adjust and add more detail as
you move forward. Involve the entire team in the planning process and make sure
everyone has access to the plans. It adds little value having a perfect plan if
no one knows about it.
10.
Provide metrics and honest project
reporting.
Metrics are vital indicators when it comes to
keeping projects on course. They enable you to report on project progress in an
accurate manner and help you spot trends that you could otherwise overlook. Key
metrics include cost ratio, where
you measure actual costs versus planned costs, and effort ratio, where you measure actual progress (or effort)
versus planned progress. These metrics (often referred to as earned value) let
you know where you are versus where you should have been. Also compare your
cost metrics to your effort metrics to see if you are making progress at the
same rate as you are spending money. However, the two do not necessarily need
to line up exactly. Always include these metrics in your status reports along
with an honest view of current risks and issues. At steering committee meetings
make sure you highlight problem areas in order that your stakeholders can help
you resolve them.
11.
Establish clear controls and sign off
points.
In order to successfully manage your project
it is important that you establish clear controls for effectively managing
cost, time and quality. Make sure invoices and time sheets are signed off and
costs are accurately tracked. Get your stakeholders to sign off on the project
charter and ensure requirements specifications are signed off before
development begins. Have a clear process for prioritizing, planning and
assigning new work items and never assume a task has been completed until its
quality has been independently verified and signed off. If you run an agile
project, have clear start and end points for your iterations. Clearly define
sign-off points between various project phases and make sure everyone knows
what the criteria are for closing down one stage and moving to the next. For
recurring tasks and activities, develop checklists, templates and lightweight
procedures to help your team better complete the work.
12.
Monitor and control changes
To manage a project well, you must embrace and
control change at all levels. Circumstances external to the project change,
users’ needs change, dependencies change and people change jobs. When something
changes do not resist it; analyze the cause and the impact of the change on
quality, cost and time. Log all change requests and never start any material
new work until the steering committee has approved it. The reason why it is so
important to stay on top of changes is that the contract or baseline (as
documented in the project charter) for what you have committed to delivering
needs to be aligned to what you are actually delivering. Renegotiate the
contract (i.e. the parameters in the project charter) when material changes
occur even if you feel uncomfortable doing so.
13.
Focus on project organization and
communication.
In order for a project to have the best chances
of succeeding you must establish and formalize roles and responsibilities and
communicate to everyone in an effective manner. Make it clear to team members
and stakeholders what their role is and what is expected from them. Also
clarify the purpose of key forums such as the steering committee so that your
sponsor and senior stakeholders are able to live up to their assigned
responsibilities. Write a communication plan which pinpoints the different
types of project information, who it will be circulated to and how often. Base
it on actual feedback from your team and stakeholders so that you can tailor
your communication to their individual needs.
14.
Continuously review and improve your
approach
Highly valued and truly successful
project management leaders continuously seek to improve the way they run their
projects. Regular project reviews provide an opportunity for you and your team
to reflect on how the last iteration or phase went; what worked well and what
you need to improve on going forward. Review your tools, techniques and
processes and how you interact with one another. Look at the project’s success
criteria. Are you within budget, are you on time and is the quality of your
products as expected? Create a climate in which team members feel safe to
report how they think the project is being run and managed. Encourage honest
feedback and listen to comments and new ideas with an open mind. Be careful
these reviews do not become a forum for assigning blame for previous problems.
Keep asking what can we learn
from our mistakes and what can we do to avoid this problem going forward?” Also seek
feedback from the sponsor, end users and senior stakeholders. Carry out the
last review when you close down the project and write up a report on your
findings. Circulate it to senior management to help improve project delivery
going forward.
15.
Be the best you can in all that you do.
To be a truly successful project manager you
must love what you do and strive to set a great personal example for others to
follow. When you are passionate, positive and proactive others will notice your
example and want to follow. Strive for personal effectiveness and consistently
focus on those things that matter the most to the wellbeing of your team and to
the success of your project. Remember that less is more, so keep things simple
where you can. Delegate tasks that will help grow and motivate others and give
people the support they need to succeed. Make decisions which are consistent
and well thought through and which are based on analysis rather than consensus.
Be proactive in the identification and resolution of risks and issues and think
of yourself as the project’s champion and ambassador. Maintain a positive
mental attitude and never make a commitment you cannot keep. Be honest and
approachable and always treat others the way you want to be treated yourself.
Conclusion
The analysis of the Knowledge Areas pertinent to the
PMBOK (PMI, 2008) allowed for an alignment and adaptation of the same
proposition for planning and Academic Research Project under the supervision of
an advisor. Thus, it was also possible to establish a framework that integrates
knowledge areas, creating a project plan that is guided by the Project
Management Principles through a process flow for the specific academic context.
Regarding further works, some parts of this research have been tested separately;
however, it is necessary to implement the use of full proposal from early
research project to conduct the validation of processes and proposed
structures. Future studies may also involve the development of an expert system
that can be used by the advisor, along the guidance process, to monitor their
advisees, as well as for knowledge management involved. Likewise, such a system
may also be (part of) a module for the student.
